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To quantitatively compare the two breakup modes, several key statistics of the bubble geometry, orientation, and breakup time, obtained from the 3D shape reconstruction, are provided. In Fig. 2b, the probability density functions (PDFs) of the bubble aspect ratio α, obtained from the 3D reconstructed bubble geometries from 6 ms before to the moment of breakup, for both breakup modes are illustrated. It is evident that the primary breakups typically feature a larger α compared with the secondary breakups. Furthermore, Fig. 2c shows the PDF of the bubble orientation, indicated by the angle between the bubble semi-major axis and the z-axis ( θ), suggesting that bubbles have preferential alignment with the z-axis during the primary breakup, while the distribution of θ for the secondary breakup is wider due to the disturbances from the surrounding turbulence. The third statistics that can be used to distinguish the two breakup modes is the breakup timescale t c, which is defined as the time delay between the start time to the breakup instant. Note that the start time is not chosen immediately after the previous breakup, but at the minimum bubble aspect ratio closest to the breakup moment, when the bubble begins to be deformed by an eddy that will eventually break it. Figure 2d shows the PDF of t c for the two breakup modes. The secondary breakup skews significantly more towards a smaller t c compared with the primary breakup. These three statistical quantities show a consistent picture as the two examples in Fig. 2a. Volume-of-fluid (VoF) simulations were carried out in OpenFOAM-v2006 (OpenFOAM-v2006 2020) using a modification of the solver compressibleMultiphaseInterFoam. This modified version is called MultiphaseCavBubbleFoam and was already implemented in previous works to study the formation of the ‘bullet jet’ (Rosselló et al. Reference Rosselló, Reese and Ohl2022) and micro-emulsification (Raman et al. Reference Raman, Rosselló, Reese and Ohl2022). In those works, similar simulations of a single expanding and collapsing bubble in the vicinity of a liquid–gas and a liquid–liquid interface were performed, respectively. Since the solver is explained in detail there, we will only give the information that is specific to the present case of a bubble created in a free-falling liquid drop.

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Figure 1a shows a schematic of the experimental apparatus that features a vortex collision sub-system (Fig. 1b) and a bubble injection sub-system. The dashed box indicates the measurement volume close to the bottom of the rings. Additional details can be found in Methods. Two distinct stages of the developed flows are highlighted in red and blue colors. The early stage was dominated by smooth and intact vortex rings, and the later stage was filled with many small eddies. Careful system control was designed to ensure that a bubble always rises to the same height when the two rings just touch each other. As shown in Fig. 1c, bubbles (indicated by the green blobs) that got entrained into one of the vortex rings were carried downward and experienced two different types of flows. The case presented in figure 9( d) differs greatly from the previous cases by the fact that now the bubble is close enough to the drop surface to generate an open cavity, allowing the ejection of the initially pressurised gas inside it into the atmosphere, and later the flow of gas into the expanded cavity before the splash closes again. Once the cavity is closed, it remains with an approximate atmospheric pressure, which prevents it from undergoing a strong collapse as it occurs in the previously discussed cases ( a– c). The radial sealing of the splash forms an axial jet directed toward the centre of the drop, which pierces the bubble and drags its content through the drop. More details on the mechanisms behind the bullet jet formation can be found in Rosselló et al. ( Reference Rosselló, Reese and Ohl2022). Dip the pointed end of a pair of scissors (or any pointy object) into the container of Homemade Bubble Solution making sure it's completely wet. Dip the bubble blower into your Homemade Bubble Solution. Slowly, blow a bubble through it until the bubble comes loose from the wand. What shape is the bubble? The dynamics of jetting bubbles inside drops or curved free surfaces have not been extensively explored. Recently, we have reported experimental and numerical results on the formation of a jetting bubble in the proximity of a curved free boundary, given by the hemispherical top of a water column or a drop sitting on a solid plate (Rosselló et al. Reference Rosselló, Reese and Ohl2022). As a natural extension of that work, we now present a study on the jet formation during the collapse of laser-induced bubbles inside a falling drop. This is a particularly interesting case as the bubble is surrounded entirely by a free boundary. From an experimental point, the intrinsic curvature of the liquid surface offers a very clear view into the bubble's interior.

Slowly, pour some water from the second glass into the first glass until it is very full and the water forms a dome above the rim of the first glass. Set the second glass of water aside.

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We emphasize that the primary breakup follows the key hypothesis made in the classical KH framework, in which a bubble is assumed to be broken by a clean and isolated vortex filament with a size close to the bubble diameter. However, most bubble breakups observed in fully developed turbulence are closer to the secondary case, where the contribution from a cloud of smaller eddies cannot be ignored. Bubble breakup mechanism Using a second pipe cleaner, fold it in half and loop it around one sdie of the other pipe cleaner square. Twist the ends to make a handle. where λ 3 (the largest compression rate) is the smallest eigenvalue of \({\widetilde{S}}_{ij}\), and ω is the vorticity magnitude. The new definition of the two Weber numbers extends the original one-dimensional version in the KH framework to emphasize the contributions from the 3D straining and rotational flows. Nevertheless, the key assumption in the KH framework that the only relevant length scale is the bubble size is still applied here.

In this paper we presented some of the complex fluid dynamics occurring once a vapour bubble expands within a water droplet. Specifically, we analysed the appearance of acoustic secondary cavitation, and the formation of liquid jets in the proximity of highly curved free surfaces and, finally, we provided detailed experimental and simulated images of the onset and development of shape instabilities on the surface of the drop. The images depict that the penetration depth of both the gas and the liquid conforming to the bullet jet is proportional to the initial splash size. For instance, in figure 8( a) the jet loses its momentum and stops around the middle of the drop, but it crosses the drop for the larger splashes shown in panels ( c– e). Remarkably, in the latter case the bullet jet occupies almost the entire drop while still preserving its characteristic features. If you’re looking for a bubble game that’s easy to play for kids, Candy Bubble is a great choice for younger players. The levels feature straight-forward instructions and a line to indicate the path of the bubbles you are shooting. More Bubble GamesIf you're ready for some popping fun, Arkadium's Bubble Shooter free online game is here to deliver a thrilling and addictive experience! Once the bubble was entrained into one of the vortices at the collision point, it was carried downwards by the flow. During this process, we observed two distinct bubble breakup modes, the examples of which are shown in Fig. 2a. For the first case, a bubble was deformed consistently along the z-axis until the moment of breakup. This process is relatively slow, and the bubble’s interface seems to be smooth throughout the entire process, similar to what was observed in the linear-extensional flows 13, 14. For the rest of the paper, this type of breakup is referred to as the primary breakup as it occurs first and always before the moment when the two vortex rings break down to a turbulent cloud. After the primary breakup, based on the KH framework, the daughter bubbles should become harder to break because their sizes are smaller and the bubble-scale eddies have weakened, yet it is surprising to find that the daughter bubble experiences a more violent breakup, as shown in the second case of Fig. 2a. This more violent breakup is referred to as the secondary breakup hereafter. The secondary breakups have three features: (i) a rough bubble interface with large local curvatures; (ii) complicated deformation along non-persistent directions; and (iii) short breakup time. The secondary breakup occurs within 5.1 ms, which is much smaller than 32.1 ms for the primary breakup. The two breakup modes are always correlated with the bubble breakup locations. In practice, a critical height at y c = −51 mm (corresponding to the vortex ring bottom location at t = 0.10 s after their collision) was used to separate the two breakup modes (primary y> y c; secondary y< y c). More discussions of this separation criterion can be found in Supplementary Information. The KH framework implies that bubbles with larger Weber numbers tend to break more easily. If it were right, we should expect a more violent primary breakup. However, the observations suggested otherwise, which clearly refute the key hypothesis in the KH framework. For the secondary breakup, although the eddy of the bubble size is much weaker, many sub-bubble-scale eddies begin to emerge. To demonstrate their appearance, we apply a high-pass rolling-average spatial filter with a filter length l = 3 mm (which is selected to be close to the bubble mean diameter) to the velocity field. The residual fluctuation velocity u < and its variance \(\langle {u}_{\,{ < }\,} A very popular game that kids play is the bubble-blowing competition. The aim of this game is blowing the largest bubble. You can also twist it to add more fun. For example, see who can produce the most bubbles at one go.

One may expect that, as the vortex rings break down to a turbulent cloud, the flow should become more isotropic. To quantify the flow isotropy, the ratio between the z-component vorticity ω z and the total vorticity magnitude ω ( Supplementary Information) is shown in Fig. 1e. Two dashed lines mark the two limits of 〈 ω z/ ω〉: 〈 ω z/ ω〉 = 1 if the original vortex rings remain intact and \(\langle {\omega }_{z}/\omega \rangle =1/\sqrt{3}\) if the flow becomes fully isotropic. In Fig. 1e, 〈 ω z/ ω〉 drops gradually with time, indicating that theflow indeed approaches theisotropic turbulence as the cascade process continues. Bubble breakup modes Perhaps no other area of fluid dynamics has borne a twin problem more than bubble breakup 1 and turbulence cascade 2 both by Andrey N. Kolmogorov, based on a key idea of elementary entities, i.e., bubbles and eddies, being fragmented into smaller and smaller sizes, following a universal mechanism. In 1955, Hinze 3 extended Kolmogorov’s original idea 1, and this Kolmogorov-Hinze (KH) framework has since posed deep and lasting impacts on modeling turbulent bubble/drop fragmentation in various flow configurations 4, 5, 6 and applications, including emulsion 7, spray formation 8, and raindrop dynamics 9. The rapid acceleration induced by the bubble oscillations in the proximity of a free boundary also gives rise to surface instabilities, in particular Rayleigh–Taylor instabilities (RTIs) (Taylor Reference Taylor1950; Keller & Kolodner Reference Keller and Kolodner1954; Zhou Reference Zhou2017 a, Reference Zhou b). This situation is more pronounced when the oscillating bubble wall gets close to the free surface, as commonly occurs in reduced volumes like a drop (Zeng et al. Reference Zeng, Gonzalez-Avila, Ten Voorde and Ohl2018; Klein et al. Reference Klein, Kurilovich, Lhuissier, Versolato, Lohse, Villermaux and Gelderblom2020). The RTI produces corrugated patterns on the liquid surface that can grow and promote the onset of other instabilities like the Rayleigh–Plateau instability. Furthermore, the multiple pits and ripples produced by the RTI on the liquid surface can interact with the acoustic emissions of the oscillating bubble to generate a fluid focusing that results in a thin outgoing liquid jet (Tagawa et al. Reference Tagawa, Oudalov, Visser, Peters, van der Meer, Sun, Prosperetti and Lohse2012; Peters et al. Reference Peters, Tagawa, Oudalov, Sun, Prosperetti, Lohse and van der Meer2013). Dip a straw into the container of Homemade Bubble Solution getting half of the straw completely wet.Touch the straw to the lid and blow a bubble on the lid. Slowly, pull the straw all of the way out of the bubble.