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The total flavonoid content was determined by using the method described in the literature [ 31]. Quercetin was used as a standard. Different concentrations of quercetin (31.25 μg/mL, 62.50 μg/mL, 125 μg/mL, 250 μg/mL, 500 μg/mL, and 1000 μg/mL) were prepared by the serial dilution technique. For each sample, extract solution of 1 mg/mL concentration was prepared by using ethanol. Then, 1 mL (1 mg/mL concentration) of ethanolic extract solution was well mixed with 4 mL of distilled water and 0.3 mL of 5% NaNO 2. After continuously shaking for 5 minutes, 0.3 mL of 10% AlCl 3 was added and subjected to incubation for 5 minutes. Then, 2 mL of 1 M NaOH was added to the solution. In the same manner, a blank solution was prepared without a sample. The final mixture solution was then incubated at room temperature for approximately 30 minutes. Finally, the absorbance of incubated standard solutions and sample solutions was recorded at 415 nm. All the measurements were evaluated in triplicate. 2.9. Determination of Total Carbohydrate Content Hu, W.; Ma, Y.; Lv, F.; Liu, J.; Zhao, W.; Chen, B.; Meng, Y.; Wang, Y.; Zhou, Z. Effects of late planting and shading on sucrose metabolism in cotton fiber. Env. Exp. Bot. 2016, 131, 164–172. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef] Kikuta, Y. et al. Specific regulation of pyrethrin biosynthesis in Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium by a blend of volatiles emitted from artificially damaged conspecific plants. Plant Cell Physiol. 52, 588–596 (2011). Artigot, M.-P., Daydé, J. & Berger, M. Expression of key genes of the isoflavonoid pathway in hypocotyls and cotyledons during soybean seed maturation. Crop Sci. 53, 1096–1108 (2013).
Zhang, C.X.; Feng, B.H.; Chen, T.T.; Fu, W.M.; Li, H.B.; Li, G.Y.; Jin, Q.Y.; Tao, L.X.; Fu, G.F. Heat stress-reduced kernel weight in rice at anthesis is associated with impaired source-sink relationship and sugars allocation. Env. Exp. Bot. 2018, 155, 718–733. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef] Karban, R., Shiojiri, K., Huntzinger, M. & McCall, A. C. Damage-induced resistance in sagebrush: Volatiles are key to intra- and interplant communication. Ecology 87, 922–930 (2006). All the experiments were analyzed three times, and the results were presented as mean ± SD. The statistical significance of differences was calculated by one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s test. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Extractive Yield Value Chen, L.Q.; Qu, X.Q.; Hou, B.H.; Sosso, D.; Osorio, S.; Fernie, A.R.; Frommer, W.B. Sucrose efflux mediated by SWEET proteins as a key step for phloem transport. Science 2012, 335, 207–211. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef] [ PubMed] Baraloto, C.; Forget, P.-M. (2007), "Seed size, seedling morphology, and response to deep shade and damage in neotropical rain forest trees", American Journal of Botany, 94 (6): 901–11, doi: 10.3732/ajb.94.6.901, PMID 21636459, S2CID 24272337According to a study conducted by a researcher from China, P. utilis ethyl acetate seed extract was further fractionated by using normal phase column chromatography, to achieve seven different fractions. The antibacterial effect of each fraction was tested against S. aureus and E. coli by using the disc diffusion method. Among seven different fractions, fraction 1 (0.2 mg per disc) revealed measurable ZOI against S. aureus (14.16 mm) and E. coli (11.5 mm). The same fraction showed the lowest MIC and MBC values of 0.625 mg/mL and 2.5 mg/mL, respectively, against S. aureus whereas in the case of E. coli, the lowest MIIC and MBC values of 2.5 mg/mL and 5.0 mg/mL, respectively, were observed [ 24]. The better MIC and MBC values shown in that research in comparison to our study must be due to the examination of fractionated samples in that study. In another study, an alkaloid isolated from P. utilis has shown MIC values of 0.08 mg/mL and 0.625 mg/mL, against S. aureus and E. coli, respectively, whereas its MBC values against S. aureus and E. coli were 0.16 mg/mL and 1.25 mg/mL, respectively [ 47]. Although extensive studies on bioactive antimicrobial phytochemicals of P. utilis remain unexplored yet, few investigations have documented the occurrence of various potent bioactive compounds such as p-Coumaric acid, rutin, catechin, Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, Quercetin-3-O-glucoside, Isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside, Isoschaftoside, etc. [ 27]. Besides that, various bioactive terpenoids such as epiutililactone, utililactone, 2 α-O-trans [ 1]p-coumaroyl-3 β, 19 α-dihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid, 2 α-O-cis-p-coumaroyl-3 β, 19 α-dihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid, and coumarin derivatives have been reported from this plant [ 22, 25]. Thus, these diverse bioactive components might be responsible for the significant antibacterial effect of P. utilis leaf and seed extract. 4. Conclusion Overall, our present findings suggested that ethyl acetate and methanolic leaf extract of P. utilis manifested significant antibacterial and antioxidant effects. Also, hexane seed extract of P. utilis displayed moderate antioxidant activity with an appraisable amount of total flavonoid and phenol content to justify the ethnomedicinal use of P. utlilis seed oil. The presence of polyphenol and flavonoid components might be responsible for these biological activities. Therefore, this study concluded that P. utilis leaf extract can be recommended for the inhibition of gram-positive bacteria and seed extract can be recommended for the inhibition of gram-negative bacteria. Their notable antibacterial potency against four different pathogenic bacteria reflects that these extracts may serve as a useful source to combat various life-threatening pathogenic bacteria to mitigate various diseases like urinary tract infection, dental problems, dysentery, diarrhea, etc. Nevertheless, further advanced research activities with great priority on an animal model, along with an understanding of the mechanism of action of antibacterial activity, are mandatory to validate the traditional utilization of this medicinally significant plant and go after the long research-based expedition of medicinal plant-derived antibacterial medicine discovery, for ensuring human safety and protection of their health. Data Availability We conducted field experiments over 3 years (2012, 2013, and 2015) and showed that exposing young soybean plants to cut goldenrod volatiles in the early growing period (July) only three times over 2–3 weeks significantly reduced the damage caused by folivores until September and by seed predators (except for 2012) until nearly November. Thus, we concluded that volatiles from cut goldenrods positively affected the defense levels of early stage soybean leaves and seeds. The effects of the exposure lasted until the seed-production stage. This was the first case study in which plant–plant communication resulted in a decrease in the damage level to leaves and seeds.
RHS Level Two Certificate in the Principles of Garden Planning, Establishment and Maintenance (2014) Nishii, Kanae; Kuwabara, Asuka; Nagata, Toshiyuki (2004). "Characterization of Anisocotylous Leaf Formation in Streptocarpus Wendlandii (Gesneriaceae): Significance of Plant Growth Regulators". Annals of Botany. 94 (3): 457–67. doi: 10.1093/aob/mch160. JSTOR 42759229. PMC 4242185. PMID 15286012 . Retrieved 13 December 2022.Eom, J.S.; Choi, S.B.; Ward, J.M.; Jeon, J.S. The mechanism of phloem loading in rice ( Oryza sativa). Mol. Cells 2012, 33, 431–438. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef][ Green Version] Firstly, nutrition broth media was prepared and kept for sterilization. Then, about 5 mL of nutrient broth was poured into four different sterilized test tubes, which were labeled with the name of the individual bacterial strain. From previously sub-cultured media, each bacterium was transferred into well-label respective tubes with the help of an inoculating loop. Finally, all the broth media containing bacteria were kept for incubation at 37°C for 1 day to achieve the suspensions of K. pneumoniae, E. coli, S. aureus, and S. epidermidis. The turbidity of the inoculum suspension was compared and adjusted up to the turbidity of 0.5 McFarland solutions. 2.11.4. Screening and Measurement of Zone of Inhibition (ZOI) The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funding agents only provided the financial support but did not participate in the design and implementation of the experiments, analysis of data, and in the writing of the manuscript. Abbreviations SPS
Kuai, J.; Liu, Z.; Wang, Y.; Meng, Y.; Chen, B.; Zhao, W.; Zhou, Z.; Oosterhuis, D.M. Waterlogging during flowering and boll forming stages affects sucrose metabolism in the leaves subtending the cotton boll and its relationship with boll weight. Plant Sci. 2014, 223, 79–98. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef] [ PubMed]Hiroaki Setoguchi; Takeshi Asakawa Osawa; Jean-Christophe Pintaud; Tanguy Jaffré; Jean-Marie Veillon (1998), "Phyloghuhenetic relationships within Araucariaceae based on rbcL gene sequences", American Journal of Botany, 85 (11): 1507–1516, doi: 10.2307/2446478, JSTOR 2446478, PMID 21680310 Undamaged plants that have been exposed to volatiles from artificially damaged plants have better defenses against folivores 4, 5. Under laboratory conditions, because the growth of the CCWs did not decrease when they were reared on an artificial diet together with cut goldenrod volatiles, it was concluded that the volatiles did not directly affect the performance of the CCWs. However, the growth of the CCWs was significantly decreased on soybean plants that had been exposed to cut goldenrod volatiles, indicating that undamaged soybean plants had better defenses against the larvae as a response to the previous volatile exposure. We also showed that at least α-pinene, β-myrcene, and limonene were involved in the defense induction. Thus, the results of the field experiments can, in part, be explained by this volatile compound-induced defense response. Similar no-choice feeding bioassays in plant–plant communication studies have been recently reported in the tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum)–common cutworm ( S. litura) and the willow ( Salix eriocarpa)–willow leaf beetle ( Plagiodera versicolora) systems 18, 19. In this study, in addition to the reduction of the relative growth ratio of CCWs, cut goldenrod volatiles might have acted as repellents of herbivores and attractants of natural enemies 1, 2. This possibility will be studied in the future. The cotyledon of grasses and many other monocotyledons is a highly modified leaf composed of a scutellum and a coleoptile. The scutellum is a tissue within the seed that is specialized to absorb stored food from the adjacent endosperm. The coleoptile is a protective cap that covers the plumule (precursor to the stem and leaves of the plant).
Soybeans were milled using an ultracentrifugal mill (Retsch ZM 1000; HAAN, Germany) with a 0.5 type mesh at 15,000 rpm. Isoflavones were extracted in a 5-fold volume of 80% (v/w) methanol at room temperature for 1 h. The crude extracts from soybean seeds were used directly in a UFLC system (Prominence UFLC system, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) equipped with a PDA detector on a C-30 reverse-phase column (Develosil C30-UG-3, 2.0 mm i.d. × 150 mm; Nomura Chemical, Seto, Okayama, Japan) at 40 °C. Extracts from soybean seeds were diluted 100 times with 80% methanol prior to use for MS analysis in the UFLC system with PDA and a MS/MS (LTQ Orbitrap XL, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The injection volume was 5 μL for each extract.
Eight forest school lessons about trees
Tang, X.; Su, T.; Han, M.; Wei, L.; Wang, W.; Yu, Z.; Xue, Y.; Wei, H.; Du, Y.; Greiner, S. Suppression of extracellular invertase inhibitor gene expression improves seed weight in soybean ( Glycine max). J. Exp. Bot. 2016, 68, 469–482. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef][ Green Version] take a walk around the woods and see which of the picture cards you can match to your trees. Can you find any seeds?
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