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Hilton, Bill Jr. (1986). Jug-o-Rum: Call of the Amorous Bullfrog. Vol.1. Hilton Pond Center for Piedmont Natural History. {{ cite book}}: |work= ignored ( help) Nauwelaerts, S.; Schollier, J.; Aerts, P. (2004). "A functional analysis of how frogs jump out of water". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 83 (3): 413–420. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2004.00403.x.
G. Carnevale1 & T.W. Pietsch: Filling the gap: a fossil frogfish, genus Antennarius (Teleostei, Lophiiformes, Antennariidae), from the Miocene of Algeria Abstract [ dead link] Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2009). " {{{1}}} biocellatus " in FishBase. Sep 2009 version. Stebbins, Robert C.; Cohen, Nathan W. (1995). A Natural History of Amphibians. Princeton University Press. pp.10–14. ISBN 978-0-691-03281-8.Little is known about the longevity of frogs and toads in the wild, but some can live for many years. Skeletochronology is a method of examining bones to determine age. Using this method, the ages of mountain yellow-legged frogs ( Rana muscosa) were studied, the phalanges of the toes showing seasonal lines where growth slows in winter. The oldest frogs had ten bands, so their age was believed to be 14 years, including the four-year tadpole stage. [167] Captive frogs and toads have been recorded as living for up to 40 years, an age achieved by a European common toad ( Bufo bufo). The cane toad ( Rhinella marina) has been known to survive 24 years in captivity, and the American bullfrog ( Rana catesbeiana) 14 years. [168] Frogs from temperate climates hibernate during the winter, and four species are known to be able to withstand freezing during this time, including the wood frog ( Rana sylvatica). [169] Parental care Male common midwife toad with eggs
a b Minott, Kevin (2010-05-15). "How frogs jump". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 2013-11-04 . Retrieved 2012-06-10. In November, 1970, NASA sent two bullfrogs into space for six days during the Orbiting Frog Otolith mission to test weightlessness. During extreme conditions, some frogs enter a state of torpor and remain inactive for months. In colder regions, many species of frog hibernate in winter. Those that live on land such as the American toad ( Bufo americanus) dig a burrow and make a hibernaculum in which to lie dormant. Others, less proficient at digging, find a crevice or bury themselves in dead leaves. Aquatic species such as the American bullfrog ( Rana catesbeiana) normally sink to the bottom of the pond where they lie, semi-immersed in mud but still able to access the oxygen dissolved in the water. Their metabolism slows down and they live on their energy reserves. Some frogs such as the wood frog, moor frog, or spring peeper can even survive being frozen. Ice crystals form under the skin and in the body cavity but the essential organs are protected from freezing by a high concentration of glucose. An apparently lifeless, frozen frog can resume respiration and its heartbeat can restart when conditions warm up. [97] In open water, frogfishes can swim with strokes of the caudal fin. They also use jet propulsion, often used by younger frogfish. It is achieved by rhythmically gulping water and forcing it out through their gill openings, also called opercular openings, which lie behind their pectoral fins. [10] Sometimes during the tadpole stage, one of the developing rear legs is eaten by a predator such as a dragonfly nymph. In some cases, the full leg still grows, but in others it does not, although the frog may still live out its normal lifespan with only three limbs. Occasionally, a parasitic flatworm ( Ribeiroia ondatrae) digs into the rear of a tadpole, causing a rearrangement of the limb bud cells and the frog develops one or more extra legs. [56] Northern leopard frog ( Rana pipiens) moulting and eating its skin Skin
Very few fossil remains of frogfishes have been found. In the northern Italian formation at Monte Bolca, formed from the sedimentation of the Tethys Ocean in the middle Eocene (45 million years ago), a 3-cm (1.2in) fossil named Histionotophorus bassani was initially described as a frogfish, but was later thought to belong to the closely related extant genus Brachionichthys or handfish. In 2005, a fossil from Miocene Algeria (3 to 23 million years ago), Antennarius monodi, is the first proven fossil frogfish, believed to be most closely related to the extant Senegalese frogfish. [14] In 2009, a new fossil from the upper Ypresian Stage of the early Eocene found in Monte Bolca, Italy was described as a new species, Eophryne barbuttii, and is the oldest known member of the family. [15] Taxonomy [ edit ] Frogs have three-chambered hearts, a feature they share with lizards. Oxygenated blood from the lungs and de-oxygenated blood from the respiring tissues enter the heart through separate atria. When these chambers contract, the two blood streams pass into a common ventricle before being pumped via a spiral valve to the appropriate vessel, the aorta for oxygenated blood and pulmonary artery for deoxygenated blood. [70] In fresh water, frogs have a body salt content much higher than the surrounding water and therefore tend to absorb water by osmosis and lose salts by diffusion through the skin. However, they have a physiology that compensates for this and they survive. In seawater, they would be immersed in a medium much more concentrated than their body fluids, especially blood; they would lose water rapidly and gain salts, processes for which their physiology cannot compensate, so they would die. Some frogs protect their offspring inside their own bodies. Both male and female pouched frogs ( Assa darlingtoni) guard their eggs, which are laid on the ground. When the eggs hatch, the male lubricates his body with the jelly surrounding them and immerses himself in the egg mass. The tadpoles wriggle into skin pouches on his side, where they develop until they metamorphose into juvenile frogs. [180] The female gastric-brooding frog ( Rheobatrachus sp.) from Australia, now probably extinct, swallows her fertilized eggs, which then develop inside her stomach. She ceases to feed and stops secreting stomach acid. The tadpoles rely on the yolks of the eggs for nourishment. After six or seven weeks, they are ready for metamorphosis. The mother regurgitates the tiny frogs, which hop away from her mouth. [181] The female Darwin's frog ( Rhinoderma darwinii) from Chile lays up to 40 eggs on the ground, where they are guarded by the male. When the tadpoles are about to hatch, they are engulfed by the male, which carries them around inside his much-enlarged vocal sac. Here they are immersed in a frothy, viscous liquid that contains some nourishment to supplement what they obtain from the yolks of the eggs. They remain in the sac for seven to ten weeks before undergoing metamorphosis, after which they move into the male's mouth and emerge. [182] Defence The mildly toxic Ranitomeya imitator Strawberry poison-dart frog contains numerous alkaloids which deter predators.
Cochran, Doris Mabel (1961). Living Amphibians of the World. Doubleday. p.112. ISBN 978-0-241-90338-4. Frost, D. R.; Grant, T.; Faivovich, J. N.; Bain, R. H.; Haas, A.; Haddad, C. L. F. B.; De Sá, R. O.; Channing, A.; Wilkinson, M.; Donnellan, S. C.; Raxworthy, C. J.; Campbell, J. A.; Blotto, B. L.; Moler, P.; Drewes, R. C.; Nussbaum, R. A.; Lynch, J. D.; Green, D. M.; Wheeler, W. C. (2006). "The Amphibian Tree of Life". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 297: 1–291. doi: 10.1206/0003-0090(2006)297[0001:TATOL]2.0.CO;2. hdl: 2246/5781. S2CID 86140137.a b Badger, David; Netherton, John (1995). Frogs. Airlife Publishing. p.38. ISBN 978-1-85310-740-5. Hopkins, Gareth R.; Brodie, Edmund D. (2015). "Occurrence of Amphibians in Saline Habitats: A Review and Evolutionary Perspective". Herpetological Monographs. 29: 1–27. doi: 10.1655/HERPMONOGRAPHS-D-14-00006. S2CID 83659304. a b Duellman, W. E.; Zug, G. R. "Anura: From tadpole to adult". Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 2012-07-13. Roček, Z. (2000). "14. Mesozoic Amphibians" (PDF). In Heatwole, H.; Carroll, R. L. (eds.). Amphibian Biology: Paleontology: The Evolutionary History of Amphibians. Vol.4. Surrey Beatty & Sons. pp.1295–1331. ISBN 978-0-949324-87-0. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
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