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Islamic Medical Manuscripts at the National Library of Medicine: a note on pharmaceutics" . Retrieved June 6, 2007. Anil Aggrawal (1995). "CHAPTER 2: THE STORY OF OPIUM". Narcotic Drugs. New Delhi: National Book Trust. ISBN 978-81-237-1383-0.Professor Arthur C. Gibson. "The Pernicious Opium Poppy". University of California, Los Angeles. Archived from the original on October 20, 2013 . Retrieved February 22, 2014. Production of thebaine and oripavine". April 20, 2004. Archived from the original on September 5, 2012 . Retrieved May 10, 2007.

Hall, Wayne; Weier, Megan (2017). "Lee Robins' studies of heroin use among US Vietnam veterans". Addiction. 112 (1): 177. doi: 10.1111/add.13584. PMID 27650054. S2CID 206974500 . Retrieved July 26, 2022. Trafkowski, J; Madea, B; Musshoff, F (August 2006). "The significance of putative urinary markers of illicit heroin use after consumption of poppy seed products". Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. 28 (4): 552–8. doi: 10.1097/00007691-200608000-00011. PMID 16885724. S2CID 22585610. Some competition came from the newly independent United States, which began to compete in Guangzhou, selling Turkish opium in the 1820s. Portuguese traders also brought opium from the independent Malwa states of western India, although by 1820, the British were able to restrict this trade by charging "pass duty" on the opium when it was forced to pass through Bombay to reach an entrepot. [20]Zhang, Sarah (January 9, 2019). "Why a Medieval Woman Had Lapis Lazuli Hidden in Her Teeth". The Atlantic . Retrieved May 10, 2020. Michot, Yahya. L’opium et le café. Traduction d’un texte arabe anonyme et exploration de l'opiophagie ottomane (Beirut: Albouraq, 2008) ISBN 978-2-84161-397-7 Call the National Alcohol and Other Drug Hotline on 1800 250 015 for free and confidential advice, information and counselling about alcohol and other drugs The production methods have not significantly changed since ancient times. Through selective breeding of the Papaver somniferum plant, the content of the phenanthrene alkaloids morphine, codeine, and to a lesser extent thebaine has been greatly increased. In modern times, much of the thebaine, which often serves as the raw material for the synthesis for oxycodone, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, and other semisynthetic opiates, originates from extracting Papaver orientale or Papaver bracteatum.

Both analgesia and drug addiction are functions of the mu opioid receptor, the class of opioid receptor first identified as responsive to morphine. Tolerance is associated with the superactivation of the receptor, which may be affected by the degree of endocytosis caused by the opioid administered, and leads to a superactivation of cyclic AMP signaling. [155] Long-term use of morphine in palliative care and the management of chronic pain always entails a risk that the patient develops tolerance or physical dependence. There are many kinds of rehabilitation treatment, including pharmacologically based treatments with naltrexone, methadone, or ibogaine. [156] If you take a large amount of opium, you could overdose. Call an ambulance straight away by dialling triple zero (000) if you or another person have any of these symptoms (ambulance officers don’t need to involve the police): Martin, Steven. The Art of Opium Antiques. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2007. Photographs and history of Chinese and Vietnamese opium-smoking paraphernalia. Hayatbakhsh M, Oghabian Z, Conlon E, Nakhaee S, Amirabadizadeh A, Zahedi M, et al. Lead poisoning among opium users in Iran: an emerging health hazard. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy. 2017;12(43).a b Rewriting history, A response to the 2008 World Drug Report, Transnational Institute, June 2008 J.P. Jones (February 1931). "Lascars in the port of London". P.L.A. Monthly . Retrieved May 12, 2007. One reason for the increase in opiate consumption in the United States during the 19th century was the prescribing and dispensing of legal opiates by physicians and pharmacists to women with "female complaints" (mostly to relieve menstrual pain and hysteria). [34] Because opiates were viewed as more humane than punishment or restraint, they were often used to treat the mentally ill. Between 150,000 and 200,000 opiate addicts lived in the United States in the late 19th century and between two-thirds and three-quarters of these addicts were women. [37]

Opium contains two main groups of alkaloids. Phenanthrenes such as morphine, codeine, and thebaine are the main psychoactive constituents. [153] Isoquinolines such as papaverine and noscapine have no significant central nervous system effects. Morphine is the most prevalent and important alkaloid in opium, consisting of 10–16 percent of the total, and is responsible for most of its harmful effects such as lung edema, respiratory difficulties, coma, or cardiac or respiratory collapse. Morphine binds to and activates mu opioid receptors in the brain, spinal cord, stomach and intestine. Regular use can lead to drug tolerance or physical dependence. Chronic opium addicts in 1906 China [48] consumed an average of eight grams of opium daily; opium addicts in modern Iran [154] are thought to consume about the same. a b Kramer John C (1979). "Opium Rampant: Medical Use, Misuse and Abuse in Britain and the West in the 17th and 18th Centuries". British Journal of Addiction. 74 (4): 377–389. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.1979.tb01367.x. PMID 396938.a b c d e Alfred W. McCoy. "Opium History, 1858 to 1940". Archived from the original on April 4, 2007 . Retrieved May 4, 2007. Extensive textual and pictorial sources also show that poppy cultivation and opium consumption were widespread in Safavid Iran [42] and Mughal India. [43] England [ edit ]